Science, Technology, & Engineering Etymologies
-science was derived from the Latin word for knowledge
-before the word "scientist" came about in 1830, science was called "natural philosophy"
-technology comes from the Greek word for art ("techne"); modern use of the word is attributed to Jacob M. Bigelow from Harvard, 1829
-the definition of technology ranges; some claim it only consists of tools, while others consider it to include all innovations (eg: are swimming techniques and government systems considered technologies?)
-technology is a "system based on the application of knowledge, manifested in physical objects and organizational forms for the attainment of specific goals"
-origins of the word engineer is unknown, may have come from words such as ingenuity and engine
-from course online notes: Tregold’s definition of engineering includes "Engineering is the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man" and "Engineering is the art, based primarily upon training in mathematics and the physical sciences, of utilizing economically the forces and materials of nature for the benefit of man"
-see http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~jlangins/Web284f02-2%20Tech&History.htm for C.R. Young’s definitions of technicians, technologists, and engineers
-tech progressive societies are problem-solving, logic based, rational, and have a belief that solutions are possible; tech changes require great social, political, economical, and cultural adaptations to succeed
-Luddites 1811, named after Ned Ludlum, attacked steam powered weaving machinery because of high food prices from drought, low trade from the Napoleonic Wars, and because their jobs were being lost to new weaving machines; tech could only progress once society was ready (had food and comfortable lives), and unions and workers’ rights became involved
-technocracy is the belief that logic and rationality (Scientific Management) can be used to fix social problems, but tech cannot solve social problems alone since these problem cannot be isolated, but are rather infinitely intertwined with others; tech can hide/relieve the symptoms and is also cheaper than real solutions, but also cause residual effects
-Neo Luddites claim tech is not neutral since it is made by the rich for the rich, has no concern for the environment, and new tech is not useful since it replaces the communal good that once existed

Early Opinion of Engineers
-were prejudice against men who used hands for construction; Plato said "hanausic" arts were inferior to intellectual scholars (eg: philosophers and mathematicians were superior to blacksmiths)
-even the God of blacksmiths or something, Hephaestus/Vulcan, was seen as stupid and handicapped
-opinions did not change until Francis Bacon recommended technology and engineers for war advantages, and until the French Encyclopedia, Diderot and d’Alembert, began convincing the population that human skills were more important than nobility
-Samuel Smiles also changed minds in the 1840/50s, when he promoted "self-help" and individualism and helped bridge the working class with the middle class

Types of Engineer Historians
-externalists are people who finds links between people, economy, and technology
-I do not have the definitions of internalists nor contextualists
-side note: classical antiquity starts from approx. 1000BC (Battle of Troy and start of Greek Empire) to 476AD (unofficial fall of the Roman Empire); Middle Ages start about 500AD (Viking invasions) and end unofficially at 1453AD (fall of Byzantine Empire and end of Hundred Years War)

Pre-Columbian North American History
-Aztecs ruled Central America with a population of 25 million; Incas ruled South America
-in the North, geography greatly affected history (human settlements were made along St. Lawrence and Mississippi Rivers), due to weather, land fertility, and transportation
-term "civilized" usually indicates a hierarchy system, specialization jobs, urban living, non-nomadic and intellectual lifestyles, with time for material wealth rather than just survival
-by these standards, some NA tribes were civilized; Aztecs had cities with a million people, and the Iroquois in Canada had a Confederacy with neighbouring tribes
-before Europeans arrived, NA had only dogs and Llamas to domesticate; it is argued that since they had no horses, sheep, cows, wheels, or ferric metallurgy, technological progress could not develop
-in comparison, by their arrival in the 1500s (Columbus sailed the ocean blue in 1492), Europeans had large ships, gun powder, metal armour, but most importantly, smallpox, which reduced the Aztec population to less than a million (smallpox didn’t work in Africa though, as Europeans got diseases from the jungle rather than spread them until the late 1800s)
-the Norse reached NewFoundland around 1000AD; it is unknown why they abandoned their settlements and left for Greenland
-the Spanish, English, Portuguese, and French did not fail likewise since they had new technology, they brought terrible diseases that they had become partially immune to, and had a political system that supported invasion (since Genoa/Italy didn’t want the gold in NA, Columbus simply asked Spain for funding instead)

Situation of Europe in the 1500s
-period of the Renaissance, an attempt to return to the classical ages
-political disunity (Italy consisted of about a dozen separate states), but after the Hundred Years War and the War of the Roses, England had finally unified under a single national state, as had France and Charles V in Spain
-external threats had diminished (Norse from the North were gone, Mongols could no longer attack from the East, and the Muslim advance was stopped in Spain)
-1340s, bubonic "Black Death" plague was finally gone, and the inability of religion and astrologers to cure the disease had paved the way for the logic of the enlightenment
-exploration (eg: discovering the world was not flat) led to new ways of thinking (enlightenment)
-in the 1300s, new technology (longbows, cannons, violins, and better plows) gave the enlightenment the feeling they were superior to the Dark Ages (although Middle Ages produced crop rotation, water wheels, crossbows, and Baroque/gothic architecture)
-water wheels were essential to the end of Middle Age feudalism, as were lateen sails and compasses for sea travel; it’s argued that Feudalism ended when kings could afford cannons (thanks to overseas riches) to wipe out the Lord’s knights
-Vasco de Gamma established the Portuguese in India and China, Magellen sailed the world, and Columbus, Cartier, and Cabot all explored North and Central America
-John Cabot from Italy sailed for the British and landed in New Founde Landes around 1496 in an attempt to reach Asia; his ship never made it back from his second expedition
-Jacques Cartier is most known for his mapping of the St. Lawrence, the discovery of Cabot Strait, and his miracle cure for scurvy (taken from the Hurons) in the 1530s
-Zheng He (Cheng Ho) of China was Muslim, and sailed in a 400-ft long treasure ship to Europe in 1405-1433; he never established an Oriental presence in Europe due to politics and the Mongol threat back home

Early North American Colonies
-France had a centralized government system in their colonies, while the British 13 Colonies had much independence in comparison
-the colonists were adventurous, not afraid of novelty, resourceful with materials since specialists were scarce, and utilitarian in nature (eg: Puritans were practical, and made Harvard University to promote it)
-the colonists were individualistic instead of having to rely on worker guilds; they were materialistic, and as Condorcet once said, Americans are "good" because they are progressive; they were also egalitarian, creating standardization in all areas

The Classical Industrial Revolution
-key dates: 1776, America writes its Declaration of Independence; 1789, the French Revolution begins (or is this when King Louis XVI was beheaded? Nevermind...); it is no coincidence that these two revolutions coincide with the Industrial Revolution of 1760 to 1830
-British at the time were rich in money and materials, had no caste system, had social plasticity, and technology such as merchant fleets, steam power, machinofacture (manufacturing), and new ways of mineral extraction; its metropolis’ saw the 13 colonies as its own plantation (eg: only purpose is to supply the mother country)
-colonies had staple economies of fish, timber, fur, and wheat
-1800 to 1850, Americans decide to build their own economy instead of relying on trade with British, and begin borrowing technology for their own needs instead of Britain’s
-technology in NA also began to advance (eg: Pennsylvania long rifle) with wagons opening up the Wild West for expansion
-it was easy for new ideas to transfer from Britain to America since the colonists were not afraid of novelty, the two nations shared a common language, and both independence and the industrial revolution allowed for easy absorption and analysis of new theories
-Lowell’s textile experiment involved creating a "new world" where women did work in factories and everything was run by the clock (scheduled); idea was to take low-skilled workers to manufacture goods and create urban cities designed for mass production, but problems arose when the women went on strike and immigrants arrived in the city to make it seem like the "old world"
-Thomas Jefferson liked rural America and wanted to refrain from developing industry, while Alexander Hamilton pushed for industrialization so America could rely on home-made products instead of imports

Moving West and the Conquering of American Space
-I’m missing data on Turner’s Frontier Thesis 1890s... oops... oh well, it probably won't be on the final exam... probably...
-just to remind you, the American Revolution was from 1775 to 1783
-urbanism requires an unglamorous infrastructure (eg: garbage disposal, sewer systems), which made people want to expand westward; Canada wanted to expand west so that the Americans couldn’t take all the land first
-the expansion south required the Mississippi and water transportation (which is cheap but slow and not navigable in winter when the river freezes over)
-to increase water transportation, canals became the "hot" thing to build (were expensive, requiring the damming, dredging and widening of rivers, but were very useful when completed)
-Duke James Brindley was the first to strike rich at canal building, by using puddling and building aqueducts such as England’s Barton Aqueduct in 1761, the Bridgewater canal, and the Grand Trunk canal in 1766
-other canals and canal builders included Robert Fulton (part of Erie Canal Commission, and successfully brought steam power to America in 1807), the Savannah crossed the Atlantic 1819 using partial steam power (um... this point doesn’t fit here), and the Erie Canal (which made New York very rich) was started in 1817 (check http://www.history.rochester.edu/canal/chron.htm)
-types of canals include the contour (no level changes) and the lock canals (many levels)
-canals are significant because they were the first major transportation innovation of the industrial age that made mass transportation inexpensive (helped increase timber, metal and food trade all year round)
-in Canada, the first major canal was the Rideau Canal, which was built for military purposes (to move troops very quickly to stop American invasions since the St. Lawrence froze in winter and was rather untamed) and was very expensive due to over-engineering
-in Canada, the Welland Canal was started in 1829 and finished in 1957, which showed Canada "missed the boat" on canals since the Erie Canal was finished by 1825; however, the merging of Upper and Lower Canada (Ontario and Quebec) by Lord Durham in the 1840s helped create tax funds for canal building in Canada
-by the way, Canadian Confederation took place in 1867 (Canada was 125 years old in 1992)

Rail Transport in the Americas
-trains were originally designed for mining, but something called rolling stock, common carrier or something made it available outside the mines for mechanical traction...
-eventually, people started riding the railroad, although the original goal was to use it only for freight; the rich called the railroad world-changing since it gave the power of mobility to the mass public
-the British are said to have the safest railroads in the 1800s (after a train competition by George Stephenson in 1829), with small grades and unit bodies for slow but steady turns; the Americans on the other hand had the largest and fastest trains, with innovations such as the T-rail, wheels that could shift, the cow-catcher, and was also 1/3 as expensive as the British trains
-railroads developed very quickly in the large US; by 1840s, US exceeded Britain in railway mileage and had more railways than canals; railways were more expensive than water transport, but was faster and not susceptible to winter
-by the 1900s, US had over 200 000 miles of railways, with a standard gauge of 4’8"; the Railway Pacific in America reached the Pacific in 1869, compared to the CPR reaching the Pacific in 1885
-LaPrairie, St. John’s was Canada’s first railway in 1836; the CPR was built to get British Columbia into Canada before they could join America ("The Canadian Pacific Railway Company was officially incorporated on February 16, 1881. The Canadian government gave it a grant of 25 million dollars and transferred approximately 10 million hectares (25 million acres) of land to the company." )
-Grand Trunk eventually bought Hudson’s Company to have the largest railroad under single management, built a major railroad from Sarnia, Ontario to Maine, but the company eventually failed since they used a non-standard gauge of 5’6"
-in 1886, the Colonial Railway was built from Halifax to Montreal, designed by U of T’s own Sandford Fleming; 1914, Grand Trunk Pacific Railway had the greatest rails per capita
-1915, the Canadian Northern Railway went bankrupt from World War 1; although railways had made new cities in Canada (eg: Regina), it had also costed Canada 25% of its national debt well into the 1900s
-railways are significant because they quickened the pace of life, helped develop the telegraph for long distances, and thanks to war generals and engineers taking over railway management, brought scheduling and efficiency to business management

The History of Engineers
-the first engineers were architects, creating temples and pyramids in the ancient world; the Roman engineer Vitruvius was the first to write a book on architecture, sundials, catapults, and battering rams
-before the 1700s, all engineers were considered military engineers (corps de genie in France)
-French had the best siege engineers taught by formal schooling, but Britain had the best civil engineers in the 1770s, taught by apprenticeship and experience in the field (eg: field culture, James Brindley was semi-illiterate)
-the French had the Mezieres military school in 1749 (to enroll, you had to be of noble birth); 1794, the famous Ecole Polytechnique was built during the French Revolution (place where Laplace forced students into oral exams... wait, that doesn’t sound too good...)
-both schooling and apprenticeship were in the US; 1850s, all generals were trained in engineering (eg: General Robert Lee of the Confederates)
-1861 to 1865 was the American Civil War; military engineers were far more patriotic than civil engineers, and during war, since money was no issue, quality over quantity was ensured for the engineering of roads, railways, and canals in Antebellum America (means pre-Civil War, 1820s to 1860s)
-most US engineers were trained at West Point, which was so highly regarded that it was so heavily fortified during the Revolution that even Benedict Arnold’s defection couldn’t capture it; the education concentrated on civil engineering, and 15% of bridge, rail and road builders in 1850s US were graduates from West Point; generals that graduated from West Point USMA include Grant, Lee, Sherman, and Jackson
-most civil engineers came from rich, business backgrounds, and saw themselves as leaders of material progress; Morrill Land Grant Act 1862 helped promote agricultural/mechanical arts at schools, leading to a boom in applications and a jump in US technology
-side notes: James Watt invented the Steam Engine, the first US cities to adopt factories were Waltham and Lowell in the 1810s and 20s, chemical and metallurgical factories sprang up in the 40s; Honore le Blanc was the first to think of interchangeable parts, and Thomas Blanchard created the first interchangeable parts in Springfield, Massachusetts by 1815; Marc Brunel of Britain had invented the assembly line in 1807, but the idea was mistrusted until Blanchard implemented them in Springfield and eliminated the need for skilled labour by 1826; the American model of manufacturing was soon adopted by three large sewing companies: Wheeler and Wilson, Brown and Sharpe, and Singer by 1867

The American System of Manufacturing
-at Crystal Palace Exhibition in 1851, the British were shocked that the US had grown so fast in technology with inventions such as Colt’s gun, new types of locks, the mechanical reaper, and rifles made with interchangeable parts; Thomas Jefferson had learned of interchangeable parts from France during the French Revolution, and brought them to the Bureau of Ordnance, who founded modern manufacturing with the help of Eli Whitney (who pretended to have done it himself, but that’s besides the point)
-I forget what Armory Practice means, but that was another name for the American System of Manufacturing; I believe it means since the US military had nearly unlimited funds, interchangeability was able to develop (the guns were more expensive than hand-crafted ones, but the US army didn’t care)
-the Brits over-engineered their rifles, while the US are said to make practical, stripped down products
-Blanchard’s Gunstock Lathe made standardized rifles from molds instead of hand-crafting; this technique was eventually applied to all American industries
-Americans revolutionized industry by increasing precision in manufacture, closer tolerances in machine parts, product standardization, interchangeability of parts, extensive use of power machinery, using machines to build machines, the specialization of tasks for workers and machines, and finding new uses for tools such as fixtures, jigs, and gauges (for making gun part molds)
-the Habukkuk Thesis claims that the US grew so quickly in industrialization since materials and minerals who cheap in America, while in Britain labour was cheaper, and thus Britain would prefer workers over machines; however, in reality, the US military liked novel ideas and even though interchangeable parts were more expensive, they were essential for their civil war efforts
-Sawyer’s view was that the US developed quickly because in the New World, novelty was welcome; workers were happy to try new tech since they weren’t worried about tradition or losing family jobs
-Henry Ford was born in Michigan in 1863, made his first car at the Edison Illuminating Company in 1896, founded the Ford Motor Company in 1903, and concentrated on mass manufacturing to introduce the Model T in 1908 for under $900 (and reduced it to $345 by 1916); he was the first to make a modern car (built by assembly lines and Taylorism efficiency), and thus, mass production was once called "Fordism"
-1914, Ford introduced the five dollar, eight hour day to pay unskilled workers more than craftsman (as long as they followed the clock), but was heavily criticized for having dangerous working conditions

Technology and Growth of the American Firm and Corporation
-1776, Adam Smith published his book, the Wealth of Nations, which outlined the Invisible Hand Principle, in which he dreamed individual entrepreneurs would compete against each other in capitalism to produce the best products at the lowest prices (an invisible hand would guide society to economic equilibrium and progress)
-1867 (same year as Canadian Confederation), Karl Heinrich Marx (born in 1818 and died in 1883) released his book, Capital (da Kapitol?), an analysis of capitalist production that claimed exploitation and corruption would lead to falling profits; he is best known for his Communist Manifesto of 1848
-1970s, Alfred Chandler won Pulitzer and Bancroft Prizes for his Visible Hand, which outlined that entrepreneurs gave power to managers and hierarchies for more profit, who made conscious decisions about supply and demand and thus ruined the Invisible Hand; he claimed Adam Smith did not take into account the rapid speed of tech growth, vertical integration (companies would buy their own mines instead of always buying material supplies), and that decentralized corporations (with stocks and bureaus and no owners in charge) would eventually consume smaller ones that could not control/predict/create consumer demand
-this all started with the railway companies, in which professional managers/generals took over after the civil war
-phase 1 (1850s) was growth; started modern management when companies became too large for one person to manage, engineers were brought to increase efficiency, & stocks were introduced for more capital
-phase 2 (1880s) was consolidation, in which cartels, fixed prices, and Robberbarons (corrupt rich guys) took over the railways and took advantage of the consumers
-phase 3 (1890s) was gigantism, in which large companies bought out all the small companies and began to standardize their rail gauges, tracks, and trains
-railways for their time were very modern corporation like, with decentralized autonomy, line/staff organization, and management instead of single owners
-railway management merged with standardization and spread to create mass distribution, based on consumer demand; involved the spread of tech and cotton in huge volumes, the introduction of retail and department stores, mail order catalogs (eg: Eatons, Sears), and chain stores
-then came mass production, in which tech was the focus; mass transportation, mass distribution, and assembly lines allowed for a huge leap in production and a spread of material wealth

Mass Production and Taylorism
-Henry Leland made the Cadillac in 1901; it was the first car built with interchangeable parts; he also invented the electrical starter, but was not a good businessman, and sold his company to General Motors
-Sir Henry Bessemer revolutionized steal making with the Bessemer furnace in 1855 and the Bessemer process in the 1860s (a process from China of getting air into malleable iron to remove carbon)
-John D. Rockefeller and his Standard Oil Company originally supplied kerosene whale oil; however, he eventually shifted to petroleum and became the most notorious robberbaron; used mass production, mass distribution, and questionable ethics to gain a monopoly over the oil industry
-these were all men who helped introduce the modern corporation with systematic management; owners became anonymous, and paid their managers with salaries instead of stocks
-a schism formed between managers and stockholders, since managers had long terms goals while stock holders wanted short term profits and dividends
-Frederick Winslow Taylor is the father of industrial engineering, born in 1856 and died in 1915; he created Taylorism (which he called Scientific Management) after graduating from engineering at night school and foreman apprenticeship during the day; he was well educated in "shop-culture" (indoor work and formal education), highly neurotic, and was so obsessive about doing everything as efficiency as possible
-he helped the US become the #1 industrial power in the 1890s by introducing high speed mills, new metallurgy techniques, and scientific management (find the ten men most skilled at a job, study every one of their moves as the man does their job, analyze and find each technique/element required for the job, clock the time it takes to do each element of the job, combine all the best techniques together, calculate the fastest time it could be done by eliminating all unnecessary elements, and apply to mass production)
-at the time, US was being struck by labour strife and production bottlenecks; Taylorism was to increase production and increase profits, and by sharing these profits, workers would stay content and efficient; Taylorism is criticized for assuming human psychology and sociology is extremely simple
-1909, Taylor published The Principles of Scientific Management and coined the term, Time Study; the goal of Scientific Management was to replace rule-of-thumb methods with science, to train workers for efficiency instead of letting them train themselves, the improvement of cooperation between workers and management, and the division of work in equal and efficient shares; however, his theories were quickly criticized for treating men like machines, and his efficiency ideas were ignored by workers and managers who feared for their autonomy and usefulness

Extra HPS 284 MidTerm Notes (in case I missed them above)
-North America has plants that Europe did not have in the 1500s (tobacco, strawberries, corn)
-Aztec population dropped from 25 million to 1 million from 1650 to 1750 from smallpox & TB
-North American natives had canoes, snowshoes, and pemiccan food
-Renaissance period is from 1450 AD to about 1600AD
-Dark Ages were considered backwards because they were religious and superstitious, compared to the rational and anti-clerical enlightenment period
-nautical European tech included mast ships with mixed sales (lateen and square), rudders for steering instead of oars, better compasses, and improved maps
-British had advantages of no caste system, colonies, strong navy, stable monarchy, and the ability to buy your way into the aristocracy
-Frontier Thesis states that the 13 colonies wanted to expand west and thus wanted independence
-canals freeze in the winter, were expensive to build, and took lots of manpower to maintain
-US were not concerned with safety of workers, so they leapt ahead with dangerous steam engine tech
-Erie Canal of 1817 to 1825 is a lock canal with 2000ft long aqueducts and tow paths for mules
-St. Lawrence provided deep passage into the continent, but the rapids and winter freezing made travel non-ideal, so the expensive Rideau Canal was built from Ottawa to Kingston in 1825 (opened in 1831)
-4 characteristics of railways are railway lines, mechanical traction (locomotives), common carrier (open to general public and everyone who can afford a ride), & the transportation of both people and freight
-British rails were safest; had clean burning fuels, well built road beds and tracks, fences along railways, wide curves with small grades/steepness, and unit bodies; George Stephenson made trains for mines
-US had the most powerful trains; used wood as fuel, smokestacks to prevent sparks from igniting the locomotive, T-rails held down by spikes, steeper grades with tighter turns, bogey trucks to allow for the turning of wheels, cow catchers since there were no fences, and no unit bodies
-1836, Canada built its first railway from LaPrairie, St. Johns to Montreal (14 miles long); 1850, Canada built a 66 mile long railway by selling government bonds (6% interest guaranteed)
-Sir John A. MacDonald wanted to connect Great Lakes with the Rockies to control all land north of the US, so he promised the CPR in 1871; 1876, Colonial Railway was built across the Maritimes
-French corps du genie organized a body of engineers; Vauban (1633-1707) built over 500 forts for France
-in Britain, field culture was developed by apprenticeship; John Smeaton (1724-1792) worked freelance as a civil engineer, not for the military as all French engineers did
-agriculture is immune to mass production, which developed from tech advances, mass communication, mass transportation, and mechanization
-Frederick Taylor became rich from his high speed tool steel, which he helped invent along with Taylor White; these tools lasted long, and Taylor was obsessed with reorganizing shops to use these tools
-Taylor believed there was always one best way to do everything, and that best way could be found through science; his idea that work should be shared equally among management and workers, and that management should be more skilled/knowledgeable at the work than the workers are (so bosses don’t become ignorant of efficiency in the factories), led to many managements banning Taylorism
-Taylorism created residue problems; Taylor improved Smits’ factory efficiency by 400%, leading to a 60% increase in Smits salary, but also eventually led to stress and alcoholism
-Carl Berth was a Norweigan who implemented Taylorism in machine shops; invented the slide rule so workers could do mathematical formulas without any skill
-Lillian Gilbreth is said to have begun industrial psychology; she thought Taylorism wasn’t enough to account for worker individuality and group personalities; her husband, Frank, was obsessed with Taylorist motion analysis (using cameras to analyze work, Scientific Management style); with it, he developed new methods for brick laying (although his tonsil idea didn’t go as well as planned…)
-Galbraith was the first dean of the University of Toronto, Sandford Fleming is associated with Queens and U of T for creating standard time, and Henry Gantt Taylorized the CPR; Gantt was obsessed with scientific efficiency, and wanted Taylorists to take over politics and control social reform; believed the world belonged to workers and builders, and like Stalin, thought that Taylorism could lead to less social problems
-most industrial engineers are now Mayoists, named after Elton Mayo; realized Taylorism featured too simple psychology, so this Australian psychologist introduced individual psychology, group solidarity, job camaraderie, etc, into Taylorism (which led to the suggestion box, company newsletters, and the Human Relations movement)

End Summary (Possible Questions on the Mid-Term)
-Reasons Why Opinions of Engineers Changed: Francis Bacon, Diderot & d’Alembert, Samuel Smiles
-Reasons for European Exploration in 1500s: emerging national states, end of feudalism, rationality (Renaissance, Enlightenment), diminished threats (Vikings, Mongols, Muslims)
-Technical Characteristics of the Classical Industrial Revolution: steam power, mineral extraction, machinofacture (manufacturing using machines and factories)
-Qualities/Advantages of Americans: adventurous, democratic, resourceful, utilitarian, egalitarian, materialistic, progressive, not afraid of novelty, shared common language with Britain
-Canal Dates: James Brindley Grand Trunk (1766), Erie Canal (1817-1825), Rideau Canal (1825-1831), Welland Canal (1829-1957)
-Four Characteristics of Railroads: rails, common carrier, mechanical traction, transports both freight and people; by 1900s, US had over 200 000 miles of rails with a standardized 4ft, 8 and a half inch gauge
-American Contribution to Manufacturing: better precision in manufacturing, better tolerance for parts, interchangeable parts, standardized parts, machines to build machines, and specialization of labour (led to the assembly line)
-The Birth of the Modern Firm Through Railroads: Phase 1 growth (Systematic management was created when engineers and generals were hired), phase 2 consolidation (corrupt Robberbarons fight for monopolies and cartels), phase 3 gigantism (large companies swallow smaller enterprises)
-Taylorism/Scientific Management: meant to improve efficiency, replace rule of thumb with science, determine equal shares of work, and generate more profits for all; process involved finding 10 best men at a job, watching them do the job individually, decipher each element of the job process, time each element duration, keep optimal elements, eliminate useless ones, and combine altogether as a series of steps

Henry Ford and Fordism
-Henry Ford (1862-1947) was a mid-west farm boy, a self-taught mechanic, an anti-semite (had mistrust for banks and large corporations, especially those run by Jews)
-wasn’t a creative man, but was great at borrowing and repackaging others’ ideas
-internal combustion engine was invented in the 1860s in Europe, along with the chassis (motor vehicle) and accessories (cars were European by design, US by adoption); horseless carriage was invented by the German Otto in 1876, was built with a coal-gas engine that had 1 horsepower per ton of engine
-1885, Benz dominated European car market in France; 1890s, chassis (modern car lock) was invented by Levassor; Dunlop and Michelin made tires; other inventions of the time included Busch’s electric ignition and Maybach’s carburetor; 1879, Seldon patented the automobile
-Ford’s first car was the Quadricycle; second came the Model N
-in Germany, in 1895 there were 135 cars, 1900 there were 800, and 1907 there were 5150; in France, there were 144 cars in 1895, 4800 in 1900, and 25200 in 1907; in the UK, red flag speed limit (cars cannot drive faster than a man walking with a red flag) hindered car development until 1900, when there were 175 cars, which grew to 12000 cars by 1907; in 1907, there were 44000 cars in US, up from 4000 in 1900
-Ford idolized Edison and hated being a farm boy; Ford became a hero for fighting against ALAM, which forced people to pay royalties for each car built
-became famous for his Model T with 20 hp (before ALAM, it costed $18000, but by 1927, the Model T costed $290); Model T was marketed as the people’s car, and came in "any color you want, as long as it’s black"; Ford also became a hero from his belief that low profit margins are worth high volume profit, and thus gave his employees enough money to save up for cars and sold vast volumes of the Model T after WW1
-1913, first moving assembly line (made for meat processing) led to drastic reductions in Model T prices during World War 1
-Ford was very anti-union, and that became his downfall; he hired goons to watch his employees to make sure they didn’t unionized, while Chrysler’s unions caused wages to surpass Ford’s
-Alfred Sloan was president of General Motors; his greatest innovation was adding banking to the company, since employees now could buy cars through consumer credit; however, this arguably led to the Great Depression, in which companies when bankrupt when employees could not pay back their credit
-American System of Manufacturing (also called Armory Practice) was perceived by the world as cheaper than traditional methods, leading to much greater mass production than what was previously known, but in reality, the required interchangeable parts made production very slow and costly; Ford’s greatest contribution was finishing Eli Whitney’s work of making mass production viable with assembly lines and by making work require no skills whatsoever
-Ford’s dream of standardization was ruined however, when Alan Sloan introduced car options/accessories and new models every year (which arguably also led to the Great Depression since eventually, people stopped buying the new models and companies went bankrupt from all the wasted research)
-Ford is significant for changing social morays, pace of life (50000 car casualties a year in 1920s), consumer consumption, consumer wants and choices, and for creating a system where the human conforms to the machine (unlike Taylorism, where the machine conforms to the person); it’s kinda ironic how a farm boy created the suburbs and essentially destroyed his former way of life in America
-Ford Motor Company was founded in 1903; 1899, Oldsmobile becomes the first American car to be manufactured in mass quantities; Cadillac Automobile Company is soon founded by Henry Leland in Detroit, David Dunbar Buick founded Buick Motor Company in 1903, and William Durant takes over Buick in 1904; Cadillac produces the single-cylinder Osceola while Buick builds its first four-cylinder car, the 1907 Model D; Oakland Motor Car Co. (Pontiac) is founded in 1907
-GM was founded from Buick in 1908 under William Billy Durant; Oldsmobile joins GM also in 1908, Cadillac is bought by GM in 1909, and GM also buys a stake in Pontiac in 1909

The Technological Epochs
-St. Lawrence Seaway was first built in the 1940s; first Industrial Revolution took place from 1760 to 1830
-Lewis Mumford (1895-1990) wrote Technics and Civilization, a book about cities and urban architecture which "inspired" our professor
-Mumford divided time into three epochs: eotechnic (1000-1700AD), Paleotechnic (1760-1830), and Neotechnic (1860 to today); argued that technology affects history more than politics and kings, and that cultural beliefs are what shapes technology over time; argued that the army was the first human made machine
-each epoch is characterized by the power and resources they use (eotechnic used wood and water, paleotechnic used cast iron, coal, and steam, and Neotechnic uses alloys, plastics, and electricity)
-according to Mumford, there are two types of political technics; authoritarian leads to simple tech, agriculture, low energy demands, slow pace of life, villages, skilled labour, and channels everyone into one direction (eg: Pyramid building); democratic technics leads to complex tech, fast pace of life, and variety, but is very fragile and prone to cascade failure (eg: power outages cause massive confusion)

Second Industrial Revolution
-took place from 1860 to 1930s, featured electricity (started by William Gilbert’s "On the Magnet" 1600 and Volta 1800), combustion engine, chemistry, alloys (starting from Bessemer Steel in 1856), and the Visible Hand (entrepreneurs gave power to corporations and management)
-major changes of the second industrial revolution include organic to mineral sources, mass production increase, increased recovery of byproducts (different pollution than before), increased product purity, and a more efficient ratio of raw materials to final products
-modern chemistry started with Nicolas Leblanc’s mixture of sulphuric acid and salt for the textile industry of the first revolution, which was vastly improved upon by the Solvay sulphuric process during the second industrial revolution
-first industrial revolution had factories, steam engines, textile industries, laissez-faire capitalism, the creation of the working class, division of labour, iron and steel, and frequent recessions; second Industrial Revolution was characterized by German and US chemical industries, electricity, corporations, the rise of the middle class, Taylorism, the continuous process, alloys, synthetics, government regulation, and mass education

The Edison System of Illumination
-Thomas Alva Edison (1847-1931), the "Wizard of Menlo Park", patented 1093 inventions in his lifetime, including the phonograph, the kinetograph (motion picture camera), and the kinetoscope (motion picture player)
-Edison was American, but his parents were Canadian, and had fought in the Northwest Rebellion; they eventually left for Michigan where Edison was born
-Edison was a keen businessman and dropped out of high school; however, he read all the latest scientific journals, and was extremely well versed in telegraphy and direct current (discovered in early 1800s); he knew the importance of discovery and public opinion, and marketed himself as the American Dream (person who earns success through hard work, not genius; "99% perspiration, 1% inspiration", and discoveries through trial and error)
-his first invention was a vote counting machine, but he lost so much money on it that he swore from that point on to only make profitable inventions, since profits showed how successful the tech was to him
-later inventions included the stock market ticket tape, the quadriplex telegraph for Western Union, and helped turn Alexander Bell’s phone of 1871 into a viable communications device
-in the 1810s, indoor gas lighting built with underground pipes was all the rage; 1878, Edison was determined to replace gas lighting with an electrical system of illumination, where wires were buried underneath the ground like pipes; in the end, Edison invented the light switch, screw type sockets, junction boxes, and the Mary-Ann generator; he had 60 patents on his lighting devices, and made 32 improvements to the incandescent light-bulb alone; wanted power to be generated away from the city like gas lighting, but built custom reactors for rich customers such as Vanderbilt as well
-Priest calmed gas lighting stockholders in Europe by claiming Edison’s ideas would never work, since current is reduced in parallel, and Edison’s system was based on parallel circuits (not in series as Europe had tried); however, Edison got around this problem using resistor filaments for high voltages and high resistances to maintain adequate current
-he modeled his light bulb system exactly like gas lighting; each lamp had the lighting of 16 candles, but Edison could never figure out a way to properly measure how much electricity was used
-1878 to 1879, Edison introduced his system of illumination and changed the world, at the start, he had 50% stake in his Edison General Electric company, and set up systems all across America and even in London with help from Swan; for marketing, he sent brochures to everyone with gas lighting, telling them stories of gas explosions; like Ford, Edison also believed that low profit margins resulted in high volume profits, and sold 90 cents worth of energy for just $1.50 (much less than other electrical companies), and lamps for 40 cents which actually costed $1.40 to make

Networks of Power
-1931, Edison dies and as a tribute, US tried to shut off all lights for one minute, but couldn’t do so; in a way, not being able to shut off all the lights was the greatest tribute of all by proving how much Edison had changed the world (electricity had replaced steam power in most factories, assembly lines, and homes)
-a battle was waged between Edison’s DC and other companies’ AC power; many inventors/technicians try their best to prevent the second generation of their own technology, and Edison was no exception; he did his best to hand out brochures, telling how dangerous AC current was (another example of an inventor’s refusal to accept new developments was James Watt, who fought against his safe 14.7 psi engine steam engine from having much higher pressures in locomotives)
-George Westinghouse (1846-1914) was one of the main AC guys; promoted that DC lost power after 5 km of transfer, but that his AC could be revamped by high voltages; Edison paid a Mr. Brown to counter such arguments, such as conning Westinghouse to make the first electric chair using AC power in 1890s (the chair didn’t exactly work very well, and Edison claimed the same could happen in homes)
-Westinghouse is also famous for inventing the air brake for railways, and founded his Westinghouse Electrical Company in 1886
-1891, a German test of AC power over 100km distance debuffed most of Edison’s claims; 1895, Westinghouse transfers power from Niagara Fall to Buffalo; Nicola Tesla (1857-1943), former employee of Edison’s, worked for Westinghouse and made AC power viable and safe for homes
-the most notorious electricity company owner was Samuel Insull (1859-1938), who left Edison General Electric for corrupt Chicago in the 20s; he was indicted by a jury for stock fraud, then left for Greece but returned to America in the 30s
-Samuel is infamous for bribing the Chicago politicians to get monopoly rights/sole ownership of electricity in the city; be bribed the mayor to hinder or buy out new competition, but made a positive impact by always using state of the art technology (he used 5000kW generators, even when they were experimental, to reduce costs for himself and the consumer)
-he kept detailed stats of electricity use in the city; predicted consumer energy demands to cut costs, and introduced differential pricing (lower costs for new consumers and big users since mass power generation is cost-effective); he is also notorious for demanding high electricity standards, which only big companies like his could meet affordably (small companies went bankrupt since they couldn’t afford the new tech)
-Chicago was ideal because of its manufacturing growth, increased shipping, meat packing, easy bribing (certain politicians had a lot of power, so just bribe them), and didn’t have many Luddites (Chicago loved new tech so much that even before Insull came, they had a World’s Fair/tech show to show off electricity)
-Insull had two technical commandments: keep the load factor high and the diversity factor high (the load should optimally be 1); to do so, take the max demand from each customer, sum all the demands, and divide it by the max capacity of the generator to get a very high load; however, this method is only successful if times of high demand are diverse, not all at once
-Insull’s genius was that the bigger his electrical system got, the cheaper it became to run
-at the time, electricity in London was having problems breaking into the market; there was a mistrust of corporations, and all utilities were run by the government; there was even a law that the government could buy back a utility from a company after 20 years for scrap price; this prevented incentive for corporations to get into utilities, and London was not very keen to new technology as a result
-this all resulted in many small electrical companies in London all having different voltages and currents in each area; the system was not standardized and in shambles until WW1; electricity eventually permeated UK as it did US thanks to technological momentum (the bigger the electrical company got, the cheaper prices got and the more customers joined) and war demands for an interconnected system
-with few restrictions by the government, technological inertia resulted in corporations quickly growing in size and profitability, resulting in lower prices and more customers

Modern Professional Engineers and the Growth of Engineering
-started in US by the Morrill Land Grant Act of 1862, which provided colleges and research for agriculture and the mechanical arts; created "school culture" and mechanical engineers in contrast to the "field culture" of civil engineers; Morrill Land Grant Act didn’t just help out the rich, but also educated the poor and middle class in engineering (1/4 of students had to drop out each year to earn money for their education)
-school culture effectively ended the trend of universities only being for the rich and privileged; 1862, there were 6 engineering schools in US; there were 70 by 1872, 85 by 1885, and 126 by 1917
-increased enrollment in engineering was also caused by engineering professionalism; professors worked hard at changing the image of engineering from shop culture to the prestige of science; Yale and Harvard’s engineering courses soon became science courses
-there were two attitudes of science with engineering: after WW2, engineering science was created and many believed engineering was inseparable from science, while others believed experience in the field was more of a factor (eg: 1700s French built bridges that collapsed but could tell you why it fell, English build bridges that stand but can’t explain how)
-after the prestige of science and research was attached to engineering, people argued whether engineering was a science or an art; it is still argued whether engineers must take complementary humanity courses (does it improve human nature? Does psychology and economics help on the job in making decisions? Or do we take them just to counter our image of sloth and sloppiness?)
-in 1815, 30 engineers graduated in the US; 100 engineers graduated in 1890, and 1430 graduated in 1917, a 15-fold increase; engineering had become the most rapidly expanding occupation in the US
-specialization in engineering soon developed; in 1818, there were only civil engineers (freelance) and military engineers; mechanical engineers then were born with the railway, and electrical engineers arrived with Edison; chemical engineers were the last to arrive, and together, 90% of the engineers in these fields worked in corporations by the 1980s (which had been reduced to 64% by 2000)
-professional engineering societies soon formed; they generally were learned groups of academics who shared research knowledge with one another, exclusive clubs based on trade association
-the first society was the ASCT (or ASCE?), made up of elite civil engineers who were elected into positions and had to pay hefty fees for membership; second came the ASME made of elite mechanical engineers who wanted to share and diffuse their ideas and knowledge; the AIEEE (ASIEE? IEEE?) of learned electrical engineers stressed its link to prestigious research and science, and the AICHE (ASCHE?) of elite chemical engineers stressed their links to the business world and apt management skills
-CR Young divided these engineers up in his definition early on in this course, claiming technicians are mindless workers, technologists knew science as well as how to work with their hands, and engineers have more general knowledge and mix their thoughts with their hands; mentioned "general culture" of learning everything in universities
-it is still argued today whether engineers are gentlemen or workers, employers or employees; in 19^th century, engineers either were prestigious nobles (military) or freelance civil engineers (self-employed), but today 95% of engineers work for an employee; starting from the second industrial revolution, society started seeing engineers as prestigious since their work was now linked to science
-it was seen that the aim of science was to understand, and the aim of technology is to do and make based on understanding; tech became more prestigious each decade, and as a result, engineers rose in social hierarchy with each technological change; engineering was finally not just seen as applied, but as socio-economic; engineering societies grew, they published journals like science researchers, and thus, Edwin Layton called science and engineering "Mirror Image Twins"
-from 1884 to 1924, 66% of engineers reached management positions; 1900, only 7% of working engineers had a degree, and by 1920, still only 20% had college degrees; this climbed to 33% by 1970 and 90% by 2000; Dupont of GM had a co-president who he went to class with at MIT

Engineering Radicalism
-engineers are not normally radicals (eg: Montreal had an engineering union, but most engineers believe unions ruin professionalism and hard work); are not normally radicals when it comes to government voting
-Saint Simon coined the term "socialism", which Karl Marx later adopted; Taylor also took this idea but was not a radical himself; however, his principles were soon taken to the extreme by technocrats and technocracy (belief that scientific management can cure all social problems) by Henry Gantt and Thorstein Veblen
-after WW1, Veblen blamed the war on inefficient and irrational society, and called for "soviets and technicians" to run the government; Technocracy Inc. was formed in California, had rallies, was Fascist, and blamed the depression on the non-technocrat government (as a result, 78% of chemical engineers voted for Republicans in US around this time)
-1890 to 1920s, Taylorists demanded a progressive society and the introduction of the New Deal (welfare, unemployment insurance, socialism, etc...); also wanted environmental and complete municipal reform; they fought against corporations/large firms, and was influential against big trust companies and robberbarons
-Morris Llewellyn Cooke (1872-1960) was a radical who took over ASME (mechanical engineering society) during the Great Depression; he demanded socialism and changed the whole society around; Roosevelt then chose him to lead the REA, a government project to bring electricity to rural areas, and Cooke jumped at the idea of bringing light and technology to people left in the dark at a low price; however, in the end, it was kind of ironic that he forced urban tech on people who wanted to remain rural and traditional, and thus broke his own code of helping the poor
-Cooke was the director of the Department of Public Works of Philadelphia in 1911, and was appointed by Roosevelt (when Roosevelt was NY governor) to the Power Authority of the State of New York; it was in 1935 that he was picked to lead the Rural Electrification Administration to expand and supply power at a lower cost to rural areas; he tried to help coops, but companies refused to relinquish their monopolies, so he used much of the REA’s money to create coops that would grow in power to fight the monopolies (essentially, he ironnically created corporations of his own)

Growth of Research and Development
-in the 19^th century, both US and Germany exceeded Britain in industrialization; Germany pulled away at first thanks to their reform of universities from transmitting/understanding knowledge to creating knowledge (the modern PhD concept); the reform of universities was started by Theodore von Humbulat, who called for new academics after Prussia was defeated by Napoleon and France
-the French soon fell behind since they still saw universities as licensing (learn existing knowledge); in 1860s and 1870s, Germany leapt ahead in pharmaceutical and chemical industries
-for example, dyes in the 18^th century were organic (eg: indigo was made from vegetables); the first artificial dye was Perkins’ mauve in Britain; France soon adopted similar techniques, but their patents were for the colour of dye itself (no other company could make the same colour dye, thus discouraging innovation and competition); however, Germany only allowed companies to patent the process of making each dye, thus competition formed between entrepreneurs to find new ways to make the same dyes
-the patent system encouraged tech improvements, and Germany dominated acid making, photography, pharmacy, etc... because of it
-in American, research and development was greatly affected by Elihu Thompson (1853-1937), the third greatest inventor in the US with 600+ patents to his name; unlike Edison, he wasn’t a great marketer or an inventor of huge discoveries, but rather made hundreds of subtle improvements to electricity and chemistry to make them commercially viable; was a conservative workhorse that at first lost as much money as he made improving other people’s discoveries
-Edison publicly claimed to hate the science community, but Thompson was accepted by it thanks to his style of incrementalism, cooperation, and tweaking/perfecting potential technologies; in WW1, he worked in government labs for gunfire control; he was a respected scientist who graduated from a hard Philadelphia high school (unlike Edison, who dropped out of school); Thompson devoted the last two decades of his life to research in astronomy
-he did not work in a special lab like Edison did at Menlo Park, but rather was in a generic one; he didn’t like being in the spotlight, but became rich when he founded the Thompson Houston Company in 1883, which grew from $125000 and 45 employees to $15 million and 3500 employees in just a decade; it was an electrical generation company that had more utility centers (grew from 44 to 600+) than Edison and Westinghouse combined, and made $1.5 million profit a year
-his company improved street lights and other existing tech (believed tech was not given but meant to be improved over time); Thompson Houston was run by a man named Coffin right before the Great Depression; Coffin hated Westinghouse, but merged Thompson Houston with General Electric (which had dropped the Edison name over time to seem more scientifically prestigious)
-in 1896 alone, there were 300 patent suits between General Electric and Westinghouse; they eventually traded patents to resolve the issue when a new threat arose; patents only last 17 years in US, and small companies would soon gain access to those monopolies/patents; another threat was that gas lighting was making a comeback due to safer technology
-gas lighting had been improved by the Welsbach matte, and Europe had developed better filaments than Edison’s, which were only 5% efficient; Edison’s attitude was that technology cannot be rushed but rather comes naturally; however, increased competition soon forced General Electric to change their attitude to progressive improvements, and removed Edison from their name as a result
-this attitude was fueled by the German, Charles Steinmetz, who demanded labs in America be made that created new ideas instead of waiting for tech serendipity to show up; he made sure the labs were purely scientific and detached from economics/manufacturing
-this resulted in the first US corporate lab being built by General Electric in 1900, run by MIT professor, Willis R. Whitney; the lab started out as a small shack, but grew to a grand institution by the time Whitney retired in 1932; for 20 years, GE had used inefficient carbonized cellulose filaments, and those patents began to expire; 1904, he developed GEM lamps using carbonizing filaments at higher temperatures, but they were only marginally more efficient than the previous filaments
-1912, Coolidge (working under Whitney) discovered the Tungsten filament; the lab had started at 14 employees, and grown by a factor of 10 by this discovery; the modern Tungsten filament allowed GE to gain 96% market control over US soon after; 1932, Landmoor of GE labs was the first industrial chemist working in a corporation to win a Nobel Prize (won it for vacuum tubes, in which GE was gaining patents on at the time to trade); 1907, Edison is dropped from AT&T since research and development was now much more important in the public eye than Menlo, New Jersey’s, spontaneous genius
-characteristics of the new PhD Research & Development age: labs were separate from production, staffed by scientists and trained/schooled engineers (not Edison geniuses), and were responsive to long term corporate needs; by 1931, 1600 companies had supported labs, employing 33000 researchers; by WW2, the number of companies had reached 2000 since tech was now seen as "life insurance" for the corporation, even during the Great Depression
-4/5 of researchers worked for 1/5 of companies, thus R & D greatly helped monopolies based on patents and not small companies; the auto companies were resistant to setting up labs, and car tech in the US didn’t change much until German competition forced it to in the 1960s
-advantages of labs: companies could now control tech determinism (rate of change and direction of certain tech developments), led to scientific prestige, the Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890 allowed tech companies to get monopolies based on patents and not bribery, small discoveries led to patents which could be traded or sold, more companies expanded and got rich from being monopolies based on primary patents on the basic tech and secondary patents for what makes the tech commercially viable, and lab discoveries helped smooth the progressive and conservatist movement of more efficiency and scientific management
-R & D helped out large companies since it was so expensive that it took smaller companies out of the game; resulted in a displacement of locus of innovation from universities to corporations
-this reform happened in the US because of the Morrill Land Grant Act, the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, and the birth of the Visible Hand (management looking out for long term goals)
-Rowlands thought of research as noble, and claimed scientists should do R & D for knowledge and not money; such was the opinion at the time of scholars, yet MIT had lots of entrepreneurs working for GE; research then entered universities in the hope it would translate back to the corporations, engineering science was born after WW2, and even companies designed solely for R & D were developed
-WW1, Edison & Willis Whitney were both assigned to military tech advisory councils; Edison wanted more practical research, but Whitney called for more focused research; the two couldn’t agree, but their assignment to the council showed wars were now getting very technological (eg: Manhattan project of WW2 costed $2 billion, and MIT "radiation" labs were modified to do radar research); after WW2, university research and development was largely sponsored by the government and industrial partners

Radio, Broadcasting, and Nationalism
-Marconi’s parents were Whisky barons (company of Jamesson), grew up on his father’s estate in Italy
-1888, a German proved EM could be transferred across rooms, and Marconi began tinkering with the technology soon after hearing of this; he eventually called it wireless telegraphy, even though it was broadcasted and not point to point like telegraphy was
-1909, shared the Nobel Prize with Ferdinand Brown (who fathered solid state physics, which led to the 1940s transistor); Marconi had taken Hertz’s idea and hired Fleming to develop wireless communication for the public
-however, the British post office had a monopoly over all forms of communication (letters, telegraph, telephone); Marconi got around this patent by making radio available to ships (where the post office could not reach) and by leasing his private service, not selling it (transmitters and receivers were all Marconi employees)
-1901, Marconi proved transatlantic communication was possible (thanks to the ionosphere redirecting radio signals back to earth), and was quickly given a huge contract from Lloyd’s Insurance and support from scientists such as Priest
-first dramatic demonstration of the power of radio was the sinking Titanic 1912, which broadcasted the first SOS wireless Morse Code call; however, it was proven in the 1904 Russo-Japanese war that quick, coded communication during a battle was necessary in the new age of war
-there was a clash between Marconi operators and ship officers; operators had interest in personal recognition, but officers had respect for national hierarchy and not employees working for money; captains had very little respect for the radio at first since they were no longer "gods" at sea (could now be given orders from the mother country instead of deciding everything for themselves); they were especially not happy when in 1915, CNO Naval Operations centralized control of the Navy fleet with radio
-the distrust of Marconi’s company (if US went to war against Britain, which side will he help?) and the failure to see that radio was a system (had standardized training programs and radio operators paid by Marconi) resulted in radio being relegated to low hierarchy onboard ships until the Titanic sank, and until Standford Hooper (in charge of radio branch of the Navy) turned things around
-radio was being abused by officers for fun (calling girlfriends), so he got young officers (who were used to and had little bias against the radio) to be operators; he upgraded the aging and unreliable radios of the fleet with new ones, and moved them all to the command bridge next to the captain
-during WW1, the government forced all radio companies to pool their patents to help the war effort; the combination of tech and research led to the first public radio broadcasts shortly after WW1; 1907, Lee de Forest was the first to transmit voice over radio, which started a trend of post-WW1 techies tinkering with radio crystal receivers in their basements; Westinghouse played music once over radio as an experiment of the technology, and since so many amateur radioists caught the signal, the idea of the music station was soon born
-AT & T, General Electric, and Westinghouse all invested in RCA to jump on the radio bandwagon; 1919, Radio Corporation of America was founded by GE, which also founded NBC in 1926; in the 1930s, RCA moved into Rockefeller Center complex in New York City (which became known as Radio City), and began investing in experimental TV technology at the time
-in just a few years, radio sales went from $22 million to $136 million in 1920, and $338 million in 1922; before radio, telephones were used for public communication (subscribers got to hear the 1896 presidential election live over telephone); the first radio broadcasting company in North America came online in Montreal in 1919 when CFCF went on the air, followed soon by America’s KDKA and NBC

Origins of the Inventorless, Motherless, Modern Computer
-"computer" may have come from the French words, telecommunication and informatique, combining into "telematique" (actually, I have no idea how "telematique" is supposed to sound like "computer", so nevermind...); just to let you know, NCSA Mosaic was the first web browser and was released in 1993; even though everyone jumped onto the Internet Explorer 3 and Netscape 3 bandwagon by 1996, I’m proud to say I was still using crappy Mosaic well into 1998, long after it was bought by Netscape, but that’s besides the historical sidebar point...
-some guy named Benettger or something argued that computers are a natural result of the industrial revolution, an attempt to control the centrifugal, complex chaos of urbanized society
-there was a crisis in three areas: how can we produce enough for everyone? How to distribute goods to everyone? And how do we know what the people want or need (advertising, public feedback, etc)?
-first attempt to create urban order was the creation of bureaucracy, but these organizations soon made too much data for their female secretaries to handle; to ease this problem, first came the typewriter and the telephone, then the vacuum tube and punch cards, and now the transistor and computer
-during the French Revolution, unemployed wig-makers (guys who made those white wigs for rich folk back then) did all the conversions from the old imperial system to the new metric system; a guy named Prony thought these tedious calculations could be mechanized, but could never find out how
-George Boole later founded arithmatized logic (made decision trees, branching operations, boolean variables); Claude Shannon then invented modern information theory by discussing entropy, disorder, and the laws of thermodynamics in terms of signal processing; Charles Babbage made the first mechanical computer, but it was simply too slow to be a success; but this all resulted in the 1937 Alan Turing machine, which had an alphabet of symbols and was used during WW2 to break the code of the German Enigma machine (see the crappy movie, U-571, for details)
-the government needed computers to handle and aid in data management; was useful for counting people (Herman Hollereth invented the punch card and made a machine to count votes, which made the vote count of 1890 take 1/3 the third of the 1880 election); they also needed ballistic tables for guns and projectiles (ENIAC, the first electrical computer, was developed to calculate these in 1946)
-private business needed computers to handle inventories and orders (profits were being threatened by mismanaged and lost data); the Credential Insurance Company was one of the first to demand computers
-the first computer hardware included mechanical calculators, 1890 cash registers, optronics, vacuum tubes developed by Ambroise Fleming (who worked for Marconi), and the Harvard Mark 1 (an electrochemical computer made by Harvard’s Howard Ailken that was outdated quickly by electrical computers); computers and the foundations of material science went hand in hand
-the first vacuum tube computer was 8x3 ft, 100 tons, 100 ft long, needed 100kW of power, costed $1 million at the time, and was 100x larger than the previous largest machine, but was used since it was 1000x faster than the electrochemical computer
-it was then succeeded by miniaturization; by 1977, calculators were 20x faster than the first vacuum tube and took 1/3000 the volume thanks to the 1940s transistor and John von Newmann, who said binary/boolean logic should be used instead of ENIAC’s base 10 math, since base 2 instructions could be coded into computers (no more need for punch cards thanks to the birth of modern programming)
-real time computing was born as a result, in which computers became connected in a network (military internet during the late cold war), with nodes separated by large distances in case of nuclear attack; data was stored on magnetic cores (modern hard drives), and these nodes were connected to far away computers which relayed back to them radar graphs and other pertinent information
-during the WW2 war effort, the three most important things in research were radar (for the Battle of Britain against the German Luftwaffe), the atomic bomb (for the war against Japan battleships in the Pacific), and Alan Turing's code breaking machine (for the war in the Atlantic against German U-boats).
-the internet was started by Vennevar Bush, who set the grounds for html format with his Memex dream or something; the modern internet grew by leaps and bounds until the dotcom crash of April 5^th, 2000; to learn more about this, just pick up the business section of today’s newspapers and see all the groaning analysts...

Extra HPS 284 Final Exam Notes (in case I missed them or blocked them out of memory up above...)
-Henry Ford was anti-semantic, which led to his distrust of monopolies and big corporations (there was and still is a belief that Jews are in control of corporate America)
-the automobile was European by birth but American by adoption
-amount of cars in the world at the time:

-1893, Duryea Brothers supposedly made the first real car
-the cost of the Model T: $800 when it was first made, $615 in 1912, and $290 in 1927; 15 million Model T’s were built between 1909-1927
-Ford was infamous for attracting employees with his $5 day wages (higher than even skilled craftsmen earned), which ingeniously allowed workers to save up enough money to buy Model Ts
-Ford’s contributions: mechanization for lowest common denominator of skill, assembly line was cheaper than traditional craft method, resulted in greater volume produced, true interchangeability (finished Eli Whitney’s dream), produced lots of widgets and accessories for the masses, and made skilled labour unimportant (the machines carried the precision of skill); this contrasted with Taylor’s ideas, who admired the skill of workers and wanted a hierarchy of skills that were formalized and imposed (analyze the best set of skills to follow, then refine them and impose them)
-early contributors to electricity: 1600, William Gilbert wrote "On the Magnet"; 1800, Volta wrote Voltate Pile on the battery (DC current); 1831, electricity was first generated by Faraday (AC current)
-chemistry of the first Industrial Revolution: Nicolas Leblanc produced Na₂CO₃ (sodium carbonate) in the following manner:

H₂SO₄ + 2NaCl à Na₂SO₄ + 2HCL (Na₂SO₄ is the sulfate)
Na₂SO₄ + 4C + CaCO₃ à Na₂CO₃ + CaS + 4CO (CaS + 4CO are wastes)

-the Leblanc method required cold temperatures and was inefficient; his method uses chlorine, while the older method required bleaching in the Sun
-chemistry of the Second Industrial Revolution: the Solvay process operated at room temperature to create sodium carbonate efficiently; other heavy chemicals of the time included HCL, H₂SO₄, Na₂CO₃, and heavy organic chemicals
-gas lighting was well established since 1810 in European cities; the gas system was developed by Lebon; it had underground pipes to houses, and centralized power plants to cook coal and gas
-1809, Humphrey Davy developed a carbon arc for illumination; it made a very bright light, was used in public spaces, but was not any good light for home or leisure activity; later on, Edison developed his system of illumination between Sept 1878 and Dec 1879, an extremely short amount of time (the only thing he couldn’t solve was how to measure electrical use)
-in the battle between AC and DC power, Edison spread terrible stories about the dangers of AC with the help of Harold P. Brown
-Insull’s Chicago System:

Load Factor = Demand / Capacity <= 1 (optimally should be 1)
Diversity Factor = S Max Demand / Capacity = should be as high as possible

-1862, there 6 engineering schools in America; 1872, there were 70 schools, 1885 85 schools, and 1917, there were 126 engineering schools
-1815, there were 30 engineers enrolled in American engineering schools; 1870, there were 100, and by 1917, there were 143 per year
-there were three attitudes towards engineering at the time:

-traditional standpoint was that science is unnecessary because engineers were born, not made (field and shop culture was superior to school culture)
-the other extreme view was that science is the most important part of being an engineer (led to techno sciences and the engineering science movement after WWII)
-the middle opinion was that science was necessary, but not sufficient (both practical experience and school training were necessary for innovation)

-Wickenden said that it is necessary to make engineers take complimentary humanities to make them better engineers (social graciousness); these humanities included communication, psychology, and economics
-oldest engineering society was the 1852 ASCE (American Association of Chemical Engineers?); next came the ASME (mechanical engineers), then the AIEEE of electrical engineers was founded in 1884, and finally the AICHE was formed as a business society to separate themselves from ordinary chemists
-Elihu Thomson (1853 – 1937) improved optic glass and gunpowder control; earned an education in chemical metallurgy from a Philadelphia high school; scientists respected him since he emphasized incrementalism, compromise and cooperation; Thomson did not like being in the spotlight, but rather remained a conservative workhorse by improving old inventions
-the Sherman Anti-trust Act of 1890 allowed more R&D and labs to be established by eliminating monopolies over certain tech sectors, allowing for new patents; monopolies could now be made through primary and secondary patents, and further patents through reverse engineering, which benefited rich companies immensely
-Marconi was a member of the Jamison family (his mother had a whiskey brand), but got his last name from his dad, who was a rich Italian aristocrat; his parents funded many of his projects (a spooky story about Marconi: he was supposed to sail on the Titanic, but got impatient and took the Lusitania first; the Titanic sank, Marconi swore that the Lusitania was his good luck charm, and he sailed on that ship whenever he could; 1917, after bringing Marconi to New York, the Lusitania was sunk by a German U-boat, possibly in an attempt to capture Marconi; and the moral of this story? That ain't life grand, so don't take ships... especially those disease infested, Disney ones these days, but that's besides the point...)
-1906, countries ganged up on Marconi and forced him to communicate with other wireless companies (he would only allow Marconi operators to talk with other Marconi operators), which resulted in set frequencies for radio transmissions and SOS help calls; however, Marconi kept a monopoly over radio by buying out the other companies that he was forced to communicate with
-1904, the Russians lost the Russo-Japanese war since they spoke over the radio without coding (the broadcasted signals were picked up by the Japanese); it was the first time a European country lost a major war to an Eastern country, which led to Asian pride and the rise of Japan by World War 2
-a guy named Sarnoff started RCA (Radio Corporation of America), which became famous when it began picking up signals from the sinking Titanic
-the word "computer" possibly originated from "Compunications"; 1988, the internet went online, the World Wide Web started in 1990, and as bragged about before, NCSA Mosaic came along in November of 1993; the "Controlled Revolution" argues that the Industrial Revolution was the cause of the modern computer, since the computer is used to control distribution, production, communication, consumption, and urban chaos

Extra Information (... in case you want something to read...), along with Properly Spelled Names
-Thomas Edison’s first invention made in Menlo Park, New Jersey was the tin-foil phonograph, which he discovered by accident when tinkering with a telegraph (his first recorded message was, "Mary had a little lamb"); he toured the country with his new technology in 1877, and was even invited to the White House; 1878, he founded the Edison Speaking Phonograph Company
-his "invention" of the light bulb came in 1879, only one and a half years after he started on his carbon filament project; 1882, the first commercial power station on Pearl Street in Manhattan came online to start the electrical age; Edison’s Pearl Street power had reliable central generation, efficient DC distribution, and a competitive price against gas lighting; 1889, his small electrical companies merged to become Edison General Electric, which was invested in by such bankers as JP Morgan
-Edison claimed his mother made him since she taught him all he needed at home; he was born 1847 in Milan, Ohio to Samuel and Nancy Edison; they soon moved to Port Huron, Michigan, and went out on his own at the age of 16
-he made his first patent in 1869 at the age of 22, and had 1093 patents under his name by the time he died; he patented his kinetoscope in 1888, but it did not catch on until Eastman Kodak began supplying motion pictures in 1893; his projectoscope was used in the first movie theatre in 1896; Edison solved the incandescent light-bulb by inventing the socket, using Bristol board as a filament instead of platinum, and created vacuum pumps so that the filament would not burn away; Edison left Menlo Park by 1886, but Henry Ford bought the New Jersey site in the 1920s and reconstructed its buildings
-George Westinghouse formed and directed more than 60 companies in his lifetime; his Niagara Falls to Buffalo (20 miles) AC experiment of 1896 started the practice of placing generators far from cities; this was all made possible by his invention of the transformer; he dropped out of college in 1865 after obtaining a patent for his rotary steam engine; 1869, invented the air brake that became standard on all trains, and founded the Westinghouse Air Brake Company (which developed the automatic air brake and the triple valve); he also developed the safe transmission of natural gas
-1884, Westinghouse formed the Westinghouse Electric Company with exclusive rights to Tesla’s polyphase system of AC current in 1888; proved Edison wrong about the dangers of AC by providing the lighting system for the entire Columbian Exposition in 1893; Westinghouse EC then became huge when they earned a contract with Cataract Construction Company in 1895 to build 3 generators at Niagara Falls
-Westinghouse developed the Parsons Steam Turbine and the AC current locomotive in 1905 (which led to the subway); 1900, his company was worth $120 000 and had 50000 employees; however, the financial panic of 1907 eventually led to him losing control over his company, and by 1911, all ties with management had been severed; he was born in 1846 and died in 1914 with 361 patents to his name
-Michael Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction in 1831 using an induction ring, the first electric transformer; he soon discovered magneto-electric induction to make the first electric generator; he laid down the first and second laws of electrolysis, and founded electrochemistry
-Joseph Swan is credited with building the first light bulb with his incandescent light in a partial vacuum patent of 1860 (used a tungsten filament); also invented the dray plate in 1871 and bromide photographic paper in 1879; his electric lamps failed since they required a battery source close by to function
-Nikola Tesla invented the AC motor, modern transformer, 3-phase electricity, the Tesla Coil, florescent lighting, Tesla induction motor, and partially the modern radio (won Marconi’s patent in 1943 court); born in 1856 Croatia and immigrated to US in 1884; the Tesla coil is still used in televisions and radios today; he was a rival of Edison’s, became world famous from his invention of polyphase electric power in the 1890s, but died broke, both in fortune and scientific recognition
-William D. Coolidge graduated from MIT in 1896, joined General Electric research labs in 1905, invented ductile tungsten, better ventilation fans, magnetic steel, the electric blanket, and the Coolidge tube (x-ray and radar research); he died with 83 patents under his name
-Charles Proteus Steinmetz invented one of the first commercially successful AC motors and patented it in 1895; he is well known for being asked to solve a problem on a broken complex system at GE; he found the error, marked it with chalk, demanded $10000 from General Electric for the job, and when they refused, he sent back this invoice: "Making chalk mark: $1. Knowing where to place it: $9999."
-Irving Langmuir was born in 1881 and died in 1957; won the Nobel Prize in 1932 for surface chemistry, but is also noted for atomic-hydrogen welding, the gas-filled tungsten lamp for GE, and contributions to the radio vacuum tube while working at General Electric Labs
-Ford Motor Company was founded in 1903 with 10 workers; in its first 15 months, 1700 Model A cars were shipped out; the $2500 Model K sold poorly, but the $500 Model N sold well; Henry Ford became president in 1906 (he was chief engineer at the start), and became a hero by making inexpensive cars and winning against George Seldon (who forced manufacturers to pay royalties on every horseless carriage made) in court in 1911; Ford sold 15 million Model Ts between 1908 and 1927
-Ford began making trucks in 1917, bought Lincoln Motor Company in 1922, and built the first tri-motor airplanes for US’ first commercial airlines in 1925; Henry’s son, Edsel, took over as president in 1919; after the Model T ended in 1927, Ford remade the Model A and shipped 4.5 million of them by 1931; 1932, the Ford V-8 was released, the first car in the world with a V-8 engine block in one piece; 1938, work started on the Mercury, Ford’s first entry in the medium-priced field
-Edsel Ford died in 1943, and Henry Ford took over again until his grandson, Henry Ford II, took over in 1945; 1954, he released the Thunderbird, which started the trend of luxury cars in America; 1956, Ford went public by selling 10.2 million shares; 1964, the Ford Mustang was unveiled and started the Baby Boomer trend of sports/fun cars at affordable prices (22 000 were ordered on the car’s first day)
-Nicaulus August Otto invented the first gas motor in 1876; he also built the "Otto Cycle Engine" (which became the motorcycle) and the first magneto ignition system; born in 1832, he died in 1891 in Cologne
-1876, the first successful two-stroke engine was made by Sir Dougland Clark; 1883, Edouard Delamare-Debouteville in France designs a four-cylinder, four stroke engine; 1885, Gottlieb Daimler develops prototype of the modern gas engine called the Reitwagen (riding wagon); 1886, Karl Benz receives a patent for a gas-fueled car; 1890, Wilhelm Maybach makes the first four-cylinder, four-stroke engine
-1883, Benz & Company was founded, and 1893, Benz Velo was the first mass produced, inexpensive car; 1886, Daimler made the first four wheeled automobile, 1889 made his first automobile with Maybach (could reach 10mph), 1890 founded Daimler Motoren-Gesellschaft, and 1901, Maybach made the Mercedes; Alfred P. Sloan of General Motors is said to have invented modern management
-Ernest Solvay founded Solvay & Cie in 1863, was one of the first to employ electrolysis in industry, invented the industrial process for sodium bicarbonate production in 1861, and originated the Solvay Process in Belgium in 1863; the Solvay process makes sodium carbonate by passing ammonia and carbon dioxide into a saturated sodium chloride solution
-Samuel C. Florman is well known for writing Existential Pleasures of Engineering (explains how engineers feels their jobs are not cold but spiritual) and The Introspective Engineer (suggests engineers can help improve the world)
-Guglielmo Marconi sent and received his first radio signal in 1895; the Navy replaced homing pigeons and visual signals with Marconi radios in 1899; 1909, radio was made famous when Robert E. Perry made it to the North Pole and said "I found the Pole", and when the naval battle of Port Arthur in the Russo-Japanese war was reported by radio; however, radio still was too unreliable for mass use until the Alexanderson high-frequency alternator and the DeForest tube were developed; Marconi’s patent on radio was overturned in 1943 and given to Nikolai Tesla
-1642, Blaise Pascal invented the Pascaline, a numerical wheel calculator and the first ever digital calculator, to help his father count taxes; however, he spent most of his life attempting to make a perpetual motion machine, which resulted in his creation of the roulette
-Charles Babbage (1791-1871) made the Difference Engine No.1 in 1832, the first automatic calculator; he designed the prototype of the Analytical Engine in 1856, which had some characteristics of modern computers; he occupied the Lucasian chair of mathematics at Cambridge from 1828 to 1839, but died a bitter man from never finishing his Analytical Engine
-1881, Herman Hollerith designed a machine to tabulate census data which was used in 1890; his breakthrough was the use of electricity to read, count, and sort the holes in his punch cards; 1896, he founded the Tabulating Machine Company, which became part of IBM in 1924; he got his idea from watching train conductors punch tickets, and his cards were used in computing up to the 1970s (my genius uncle keeps bragging that back in his U of T days, he had to do everything by punch cards, uphill and downhill, both ways in the snow...)
-Konrad Zuse became semiofficial creator of the computer when he realized he wanted to make a slide-rule with memory; 1936, he made a mechanical calculator called the Z1, the first binary computer; 1939, he made the Z2, the first electro-mechanical calculator; he completed the Z3 in 1943, the world’s first fully programmable electronic computer based on a binary floating-point system (he used movie film for memory, and his 1946 Plankalkül programming language included arrays and records/structures); the Z1, Z2, and Z3 were all destroyed during WW2, but he made the Z4 after fleeing from Germany to Switzerland by horse-cart, and the Z4 became famous with the use of punch cards for memory
-John Atanasoff & Clifford Berry made the first ABC digital computer in 1939; Atanasoff and Berry are famous for their 1940 manuscript, Computing Machines for the Solution of Large Systems of Linear Algebraic Equations; Berry died with 19 patents, but I’m not sure if he ever got to finish his ABC computer (he stopped work on it to concentrate on other things during WW2)
-George Stibitz is the father of the digital computer, and has 34 patents; he made the two-digit binary adder in 1937, and with the help of S.B. Williams of Bell Labs, he developed a complex calculator based on binary coding in 1939
-Howard Aiken and Grace Hopper both worked together to make the Common Business-Oriented Language, or what we refer to as the programming language of COBOL; they also made the electrochemical Harvard Mark I in 1944; Grace was the first woman to graduate from Yale with a PhD in Math, and became the first woman ever to reach Admiral in the US Navy in 1985 (this is where somebody goes, "You go, girl"... but, um, I didn’t say that...); Cobol was the first successful, high level programming language I think...
-1946, John Mauchly and John Presper Eckert developed the ENIAC I (Electrical Numerical Integrator And Calculator) for artillery firing tables; ENIAC took 18 months and $500 000 tax money to make; it contained 17468 vacuum tubes, 70000 resistors, 10000 capacitors, 1500 relays, 6000 manual switches and 5 million soldered joints; it covered 1800 square feet, weighed 30 tons, consumed 160 kilowatts of electrical power, and was said to cause Philadelphia black-outs when turned on
-ENIAC amazed people by doing 5,000 additions, 357 multiplications or 38 divisions a second (approx. 5Kz speed), but took weeks to reprogram each time; 1948, Dr. John Von Neumann modified the ENIAC to make it easier to program using binary code, and added what we would call serial ports for input; 1950, Mauchly and Eckert then made the Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC), which used magnetic tape instead of punch cards for programming; however, no one accepted the UNIVAC over IBM’s counterparts until it successfully predicted that Eisenhower would win the US presidential race in 1952
-John Backus invented the programming language of FORTRAN in 1954, the first high level programming language (HLLs use English for coding instead of numbers like Assembly; did FORTRAN come before COBOL?); the first computer to run FORTRAN was the IBM704, which Backus helped design
-just because he’s my hero(sort of, next to Miyamoto and Yamauchi... nevermind...), I’ll report here that Steve Russell of MIT made the first electronic game, Space Wars, in 1962; I forget if Pong on an oscilloscope actually came first (Pong was released as an arcade in 1972, but was created in university labs long before then), but nonetheless, Russell still gets the credit

End Summary (Possible Questions on the Final)
-Taylor’s Disciples: Carl Barth (invented the slide rule for machine shops), Lillian and Frank Gilbreth (talked about industrial psychology and scientific method analysis), Elton Mayo (individual and group psychology), Henry Gantt (believed Taylorists should run governments), Thorstein Veblen (made Technocracy Inc.), Morris Cooke (member of ASME, ran the REA for Roosevelt)
-Characteristics of Henry Ford and the Ford Motor Company: was hero for fighting Seldon’s ALAM, introduced assembly lines and deskilled labour (person conformed to machine contrary to Taylorism), brought standardization through the Model T (while Alfred Sloan of GM opted for credit banking and diversity), changed social morays/pace of life, affected consumer demand and consumption patterns
-Mumford’s Three Technological Epochs: eotechnic, Paleotechnic, Neotechnic
-Mumford’s Two Political Technics: authoritarian, democratic
-Characteristics of the Second Industrial Revolution (1860s-1930s): mineral instead of organic sources, increased mass production, increased recovery of byproducts, increased product purity, increased efficiency of raw material to final product ratio, electricity, combustion engine, chemistry, alloys, Visible Hand
-Some of Thomas Edison’s 1093 Patents: phonograph, kinetoscope, kinetograph, vote counting machine, stock market ticker tape, quadriplex telegraph, development of Alexander Bell’s phone system
-Characteristics of Edison’s System of Illumination: carbon filaments, vacuum tubes, underground wires, distant power stations, DC current, light switches, screw sockets, junction boxes, Mary Ann (Marian?) Generators, parallel circuits with resistor filaments, 16 candle light intensity
-Insull’s Chicago System of Illumination: bribed politicians for monopoly and gave discounts to new/heavy users (since the larger the system got, the cheaper it became to run); used state of the art generators, forced high electricity standards, kept detailed statistics on consumer electricity use, kept load factor high and diversity factor high
-Is Engineering a Science or an Art?: field culture vs shop culture vs school culture vs general culture; engineering societies formed, published papers like science, Layton’s Mirror Image Twins, engineers mostly worked as employees rather than employers
-Characteristics of the Research and Development, PhD Lab age: started with Steinmetz, then Whitney, Coolidge, and Langmuir; labs are separate from production, responsive to long term corporate needs (Visible Hand), run by scientists and trained engineers, attempts to control tech determinism, merges scientific prestige with engineering, led to patent trading, resulted in monopolies from primary and secondary patents, smoothed pressure from the scientific management movement (Taylorists), helped large companies survive while leaving smaller ones in the dust due to high research costs
-Characteristics of Marconi’s & Hooper’s Navy Radio System: leased as a private service to avoid post office monopoly; transmitter and receiver officers were Marconi employees, young officers were chosen to reduce Luddite bias, radios were upgraded and moved to the ship bridge
-Contributors to the Motherless Computer: Prony (French metric system), George Boole (arithmatized logic), Claude Shannon (information theory), Charles Babbage (mechanical computer), Herman Hollerith (punch cards), Alan Turing (code breaking machines), Ambroise Fleming (electrical, vacuum tube computers), Howard Aiken (electrochemical computer), John von Neumann (binary coding), Vennevar Bush (basis of html code and the military internet)